Toilet technology has evolved remarkably over millennia. Ancient civilizations like the Indus Valley and Romans built sophisticated sanitation systems, including early flushing toilets and public latrines. During the Middle Ages, hygiene regressed, with chamber pots and cesspits common. In the 16th century, Sir John Harington invented a rudimentary flush toilet, but widespread adoption lagged. The 19th century brought major advances: Thomas Crapper popularized the modern flush mechanism, and sewer systems improved urban sanitation. In the 20th century, innovations included water-efficient designs and bidets. Today’s smart toilets offer heated seats, sensors, and self-cleaning features, reflecting continuing progress in hygiene and convenience.