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The War of 1812
"The War of 1812 (June 1812 – February 1815) was a conflict fought between the United States and its allies, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and its dependent colonies in North America and indigenous allies. It began when the United States declared war in June 1812, and ended in a restoration of the pre-war status quo when a peace treaty agreed to earlier was ratified by the United States in February 1815. Historians in the United Kingdom often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars, while historians in North America see it as a war in its own right; it is related to the American Indian Wars, Sixty Years' War, Creek War, Tecumseh's War, and the American Revolutionary War.

From the American perspective, the major casus belli of the war was the kidnapping of American citizens to man the Royal Navy, a practice known as impressment. Between 1793 and 1812, the British absconded with more than 15,000 American citizens and forced them to help the British prosecute their ongoing wars on the European continent.[10]

The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, ended the American Revolution by formally acknowledging the US to be a sovereign nation separate and independent from Great Britain. The Americans felt greatly aggrieved that their hard-won sovereignty was already being violated a mere 10 years after the Treaty's enactment by the mass Shanghaiing of their citizens to fight in another country's wars. One of the 27 colonial grievances enumerated in the Declaration of Independence directly highlights the practice of impressment, so the issue had already been politically sensitive even before the Revolutionary War broke out, and stopping it formed one of the primary motivations for achieving independence in the first place.[11]

Although begun well before the outbreak of war between the UK and Napoleonic France in 1803, the practice greatly accelerated under wartime conditions. Additionally, the Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade to choke off neutral trade to France, which the United States contested as illegal under international law.

As the kidnappings continued, American sentiment toward the United Kingdom grew increasingly hostile, exacerbated by incidents such as the 1807 Chesapeake–Leopard affair. Meanwhile, the British were outraged by the 1811 Little Belt affair.[12] The United Kingdom supplied arms to Native Americans, who raided European-American settlers on the American frontier, hindering the expansion of the United States and provoking resentment.[13]

The Canadian perspective on the war has been preoccupied primarily with whether America secretly yearned to add the remainder of the British colonies in North America to their fold - a different sort of unfinished work from the Revolution. While examination of some primary documents suggests that American maneuvers during the war were calculated simply to win the war expeditiously,[14] other historians have read expansionist motives into them.

President James Madison signed into law the declaration of war after heavy pressure from the War Hawks in the United States Congress.[15] Federalist opposition to the War of 1812 in the United States affected its prosecution, especially in New England, where it was referred to as "Mr. Madison's War".

With most of its army in Europe fighting Napoleon, the United Kingdom adopted a national-level siege strategy, focused on blockading the ports and containing the US at its borders, with offensive operations initially limited to the border and the western frontier, with help from its Native American allies. American military defeats at the Siege of Detroit and the Battle of Queenston Heights thwarted attempts to seize Upper Canada, improving British morale. American attempts to invade Lower Canada and capture Montreal also failed.[16] In 1813, the United States won the Battle of Lake Erie, gaining control of the lake and defeating Tecumseh's Confederacy at the Battle of the Thames, thereby defeating the United Kingdom's largest Native American ally, a primary war goal. The Americans made a final attempt to invade the Canadas, but the Battle of Lundy's Lane during the summer of 1814 was fought to a draw. At sea, the powerful Royal Navy cut off trade[17] and allowing the British to raid the coast at will. In 1814, the British burned Washington, but the Americans later repulsed British attempts to invade New York and Maryland, ending invasions from the Canadas into the northern and mid-Atlantic states. In early 1815, after a peace treaty had been signed, but before this news had reached the Americas, United States forces heavily defeated the attacking British Army near New Orleans, Louisiana with an estimated casualty count of 2,000 to 60.[18] This was viewed as restoring national honor and catapulted American commanding General Andrew Jackson to national celebrity, culminating in him being elected President in 1828. Fighting also took place in West Florida, where a two-day battle for the city of Pensacola ended in Spanish surrender.[19]

In the United Kingdom, there was mounting opposition to wartime taxation and merchants lobbied for the resumption of trade with the United States. With the abdication of Napoleon, the United Kingdom's war with France ended and the UK stopped impressment generally. This long-awaited cessation of American sailor impressment removed one of the original causes of the war. The British then increased the strength of their blockade of the United States coast which had a crippling effect on the American economy.[17][20] Peace negotiations began in August 1814 and the Treaty of Ghent was signed on 24 December 1814. The treaty was unanimously ratified by the United States Senate on 17 February 1815, ending the war with no boundary changes[21][22] except for the disposition of some islands in Passamaquoddy Bay, an issue that was resolved after the war.[23]

A curious thing about the historiography of this war is that all sides claim to have won it, and to an extent, this is true, as every belligerent essentially got what they most wanted. The British were able to vanquish Napoleon (twice, as it turned out) and quickly forgot about the War of 1812; it is viewed as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars in the UK and overshadowed by key victories at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 and Waterloo in 1815 which led to the Pax Britannica. In the United States and Upper Canada, nationalistic mythology around the war took hold following its conclusion, however. The Canadians emphasize their ability to remain separate from the United States, with the failure of the invasion of British Canada advancing the evolving concept of Canadian identity and of Canada as a distinct region that would continue to evolve into a nation. And the Americans were able to finally end the impressment of their citizens and enforce their sovereignty. Both the restoration of honour and the "Second War of Independence" are important themes in American historiography and are considered significant results by historians.

Indigenous nations are generally understood to be the primary losers in the war."

-The War of 1812, Wikipedia
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Rolli Schmidt 2021 年 12 月 29 日 下午 4:27 
21

you stupid
I smell u 2021 年 3 月 27 日 上午 11:15 
1.